Structure of DNA: An Overview

Structure of DNA: An Overview The structure of DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is generally found in all organisms as well as humans. DNA is an inherited material that every person has, and is set up in both the cell nucleus and the mitochondria. A higher percentage of human DNA comprise of nuclear DNA because it is found in the nucleus. (Berger, 1998). DNA comprises of numerous properties, the most significant being; that it can copy itself. In the occurrence of this process, the twofold helix strands of DNA are employed as a model for replicating the base sequences. (Watson, 2011). This is an important process in the event of cell division due to the vital requirement for each new cell to carry an accurate DNA copy found in the mature cell. Adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and uracil (U) are major five chemical bases that accumulate DNA’s coded information (Watson Crick, 2003). There are over three billion of such chemicals. More than 99% of these bases have been proved to be reliable in all humans (Buch ini Leumann, 2003). As a result of the complexity and association of the entire DNA structure, an in-depth look of each part; DNA is the genetic information of nearly all living organisms. It can be copied over age brackets of cells; it can be converted into proteins; and can be mended when required. DNA is a polymer, composed of nucleotides (Watson Crick, 2003) Hydrogen bonds: bases pairing The (hydrophobic) bases are piled on the in the interior, their level surface are vertical to the axis of the double helix (Berger, 1998). The exterior (phosphate and sugar) is hydrophilic. Hydrogen limits between the bases of one strand and that of the other strand grip the two strands together (dashed lines in the drawing). A purine on one strand links to a pyrimidine on the other strand. Consequently, the number of purines deposits matches the number of pyrimidine deposits (Watson, 2011). A binds T (with 2 hydrogen bounds), while G binds C (with 3 hydrogen bounds: more stable link: 5.5 kcal vs 3.5 kcal) (Rà ¤dler Safinya, 1997). Thus, the substance in A in the DNA is equal to the one in T, and the substance in G equals the one in C. The complement of the 2 strands is as a result of this (AT and GC) correspondence. One serves as a template of the other, and vice versa. This feature allows exact replication (â€Å"semi-conservative replication: one strand -the template- is conserved, another is newly synthesized, same with the second strand, conserved, allowing another one to be newly synthesized†) (Buchini Leumann, 2003). The model of Watson and Crick above described sometimes differs from the Hydrogen bounds in base pairing from using the N7 atom of the purine instead of the N1 (Hoogsteen model). Figure 1 Major groove and minor groove The double helix is a rather inflexible and thick molecule of a huge extent and a small diameter. It presents both major groove and a minor groove (Patil, Rhodes Burgess, 2004). The major groove is profound and broad; the minor groove is thin and shallow. DNA-protein connections are essential procedures in the life of the cell life. Proteins connect at the ground of the DNA grooves, using a precise binding: hydrogen bounds, and distracted binding: van der Waals exchanges. Proteins recognize H-bond donors, H-bond acceptors, methyl groups (hydrophobic), which are later in the major groove (Rà ¤dler Safinya, 1997). The major groove involves 4 likely patterns of recognition, and 2 with the minor groove. A few proteins bind DNA in its major groove, some other in the minor groove, and some need to bind to both. The minor groove of double helical B-DNA is a sector of great attention for rising new drugs because of its non-covalence high succession specific connections for a huge number of tiny molecules (Berger, 1998). Minor groove binding lies among the broadly studied class of agents exemplified by, an advanced succession specificity and possessing diverse biological actions. A number of them display antiviral, antibacterial, and antiprotozoal properties. However, others have shown antitumor activity. Figure 2 H-DNA or triplex DNA Inverted repeats (palindromes) of polypurine/polypyrimidine DNA stretches can structure triplex structures (triple helix) (Watson Crick, 2003). A triple-stranded together with a single stranded DNA are formed. H-DNA may have a function in practical regulation of gene appearance as well as on RNAs (e.g. repression of transcription). Figure 3 Triplex Forming Nucleotides Triplex forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) have attained significant focus as a possible therapeutic agent to aim gene expression (Patil, Rhodes Burgess, 2004). They are a group of DNA oligonucleotides which are capable of fusing with other main groove of the duplex DNA creating triple helix (Buchini Leumann, 2003). The creation of a triplex beside the main groove leads to competition with the fusing of transcription factors and the proteins essential for transcription. TFOs provide specificity sequence and hence can be used to aim and inhibit appearance of specific genes which are associated with a particular disease state. In addition TFOs can also be used as diagnostic agents for identification of a foreign DNA (viral or bacterial) or any diseases associated to mutations. Binding of Triplex Forming Oligonucleotides TFOs, in the span of approximately 20 bases, can bind in the major groove via Hoogsteen hydrogen bonds to the purine (A and G) bases on the double stranded DNA, already in the structure of the Watson-Crick helix. The binding can take place at the extent of pyrimidines of one DNA strand and the opposite purines on the other. TFOs bind to the strand with purines. Respective of their base composure, TFOs can bind to the double helix in either parallel or antiparallel direction to the purine-bearing strand (Buchini Leumann, 2003). TFOs made of pyrimidines (C and T) bind to the purine-rich strand of the objective double helix via Hoogsteen hydrogen bonds in a parallel manner. TFOs comprised of purines (A and G), or mixed purine and pyrimidine (G and T) bind to the same purine-rich strand through reverse Hoogsteen bonds in an anti-parallel style (Rà ¤dler Safinya, 1997). Oligonucleotides with modified structural features Oligonucleotides hauling other compound moieties besides the normal bases are called â€Å"modified oligonucleotides†. The modifications can be situated at the 3’- or 5’-end of the oligonucleotide, or within the sugar-phosphate stamina or at the nucleobases. Mainly all PCR applications are still potential if the modification is close to the 5’- end of the oligonucleotide. Contrary, modifications at the 3’- end typically wedge this end for extra enzymatic response. In order to achieve an absolute blocking, an inverted end or C3-Spacer modification is recommended (Patil, Rhodes Burgess, 2004). Chemically synthesized oligonucleotides bear free hydroxy (OH) collection at their relevant 3’- and 5’- ends (Berger, 1998). Besides, some biological tests need the presence of the natural structure of an oligonucleotide. This modification requires being ordered explicitly (Rà ¤dler Safinya, 1997). Structure and Limitations DNA triple helices figure in a sequence-specific way on polypurine:polypyrimidine tracts (1–3), which are extensive in mammalian genomes (4–6). The third thread recline in the major groove of an integral duplex and is calmed by two Hoogsteen hydrogen bonds between third strand bases and the purines in the duplex (3, 7) (Buchini Leumann, 2003). The third strand may comprise of pyrimidines, or purines, respective of the character of the target succession. In the pyrimidine (or Y.R:Y) motif, a homopyrimidine oligonucleotide binds in a trend parallel to the purine strand in the duplex, with canonical base triplets of T.A:T and C.G:C. In the alternate purine motif (R.R:Y), a homopurine strand binds antiparallel to the purine strand, with base triplets of A.A:T and G.G:C (8, 9) (Buchini Leumann, 2003). The development of TFOs could involve sequence-specific gene targeting reagents in live cells (12–17) (Berger, 1998). Despite this, several obstacles still need to be overcome. Triplex chemistry and biochemistry inflict essential limitations to TFO action in the nuclear setting, and target choices are inadequate to polypurine:polypyrimidine sequences (Watson, 2011). Additionally, it is evident that nucleosomes can inhibit triplex formation (18–20). As a result, ease of access to genomic targets is an important issue. Potential applications of TFOs-gene targeting Potential applications of TFOs embrace gene targeting treatment particularly for cancer and the study of gene expressions. TFOs can hush a gene record by aiming the dictation initiation sites, (i.e., the promoter region), or by targeting recording of elongation by striking at the triplex binding sites. Specifity of sequence is the answer to efficient genetic targeting. With the use of specificity, genes that are targeted can be changed in many ways. Gene therapy agents change into loose cannons inside the cells without it. Triplex forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) fuse into main groove of the duplex DNA with high affinity and specificity (Watson, 2011). Due to these properties, TFOs have been thought as host devices for the genetic manipulation. Recent researches have shown that TFOs have the ability to mediate targeted gene success in mice, establishing the basis for the possible application of those molecules in a human being’s gene therapy. Molecules that fuse with the DNA double helix might interfere with gene appearance and, to add to the potential therapeutic applications, it can be useful for the research of DNA processing, package of chromatin, or related biological processes. The Triplex-forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) fuse with specific sequences in DNA double helix through hydrogen bonding interactions. The TFOs have been revealed to down-regulate the expression of the gene, to induce aimed genomic DNA modifications, so as to fasten DNA combination, and also to regulate chromatin organization. In addition to this, they can be used as transporting agents to place DNA-modifying agents into selected sequences (Patil, Rhodes Burgess, 2004). Something important regarding TFO technologies are the creation of fresh oligonucleotide analogues which have improved fusing affinity, sufficient stability and better target selectivity, in intracellular environment. References Watson, J. D, Crick, F. H, 2003, The structure of DNA. In Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, Vol. 18, pp. 123-131, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Berger, J. M. (1998). Structure of DNA topoisomerases. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta  (BBA)-Gene Structure and Expression, 1400(1), 3-18. Rà ¤dler, J. Safinya, C. R., 1997, Structure of DNA-cationic liposome complexes: DNA  Intercalation in Multilamellar Membranes in Distinct Interhelical Packing Regimes, Science, 275(5301), 810-814. Watson, J. D, 2011, The double helix: A personal account of the discovery of the structure of DNA, Simon and Schuster. Buchini, S., Leumann, C. J, 2003, Recent improvements in antigene technology, Current opinion in chemical biology, 7(6), 717-726. Patil, S. D., Rhodes, D. G., Burgess, D. J, 2004, Anionic liposomal delivery system for DNA transfection, The AAPS journal, 6(4), 13-22.

Comapring Father/Daughter Relationships in King Lear and A Thousand Acr

Father/Daughter Relationships in King Lear and A Thousand Acres   Ã‚  Ã‚   The bond between a father and a daughter stands as one of the strongest emotional bonds present within many families. From the moment their little girls emerge from the womb to the moment their young women marry, the father reigns as the head of the household, the controller, and the protector. Though this rings true for many families, sometimes Daddy's little girls make all the rules. They possess the ability to acquire what they want through their incessant whining, crying, and batting of their eyelashes. Daddy's little girls assert control over most situations and possess negotiating skills that rival those of the best Wall Street stockbrokers. Pulling at Daddy's heart, Daddy's little girls play their fathers like puppets. Daddy appears as the head, but everyone knows who reigns as the boss. Though a father takes on the leadership role as the male figure head of the family, the role of protector makes the father-daughter bond particularly strong. Fathers protect their little girls from all harm so they proclaim. What happens when something shatters the respect and trust within the father-daughter relationship? What happens if the father hurts the daughter or vice versa? William Shakespeare's King Lear and Jane Smiley's A Thousand Acres delve into the subject of father-daughter relationships. Both works of literature carefully examine the father-daughter theme, but, in King Lear, Lear receives the sympathy and not his sinister, evil daughters, Goneril and Regan, while in A Thousand Acres Larry Cook emerges as the villain, the daughters, Ginny and Rose, emerge as the heroines.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In every family resides the favorite. The favorites get eve... ...es stand as the ones that survive through the storm that rages in their lives. Although some of the heroes ultimately die, Lear of King Lear and Ginny and Rose of A Thousand Acres establish themselves as examples of total self-respect. Though people disrespect them, they persevere and live their lives to the best of their abilities emerging as the only true, heroic characters.    Works Cited Harbage, Alfred. " King Lear: An Introduction." Shakespeare: The Tragedies: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood: Prentice-Hall, 1964: 113-22. Knight, Wilson. "King Lear and the Comedy of the Grotesque." Shakespeare: The Tragedies: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Prentice-Hall, 1964: 123-38. Shakespeare, William. King Lear. New York: Scholastic, 1970. Smiley, Jane. A Thousand Acres. Thorndike: Thorndike Press, 1991.

Love vs Infatuation

Love Vs. Infatuation There are plenty of differences between being infatuated with someone and being in love with someone. A person knows in their heart what they feel but most of the time the two can be confused. Usually it takes a little while to know whether or not you’re infatuated versus being in love. You won’t know overnight but sometimes you have to figure it out for yourself. Both love and infatuation are crazy things, They are both led by something other than your brain which is why it’s so hard to distinguish the two. Love is led by your heart and infatuation, by the chemicals released in your body.Infatuation may have some similar â€Å"symptoms† of love but the differences overrule the small similarities. I myself still have trouble separating the two. It would be an amazing thing if a guide book just dropped down to help you figure out just what you were experiencing. Unfortunately that does not exist so I will distinguish the difference betw een love and infatuation in the next few paragraphs, with some help from some people experienced in the area. â€Å"Love is friendship that has caught fire; it takes root and grows, one day at a time†, Ann Landers of the Chicago Tribune says.I love this quote because it really gives you an idea of how love should start. Love takes time to grow, it does not come overnight. It isn’t something like a fairytale. For instance in Cinderella, Cinderella leaves her glass slipper behind and the prince searches for her and they fall in love and get married in what seems like less than a month. Yes there may be some out there that do get married or â€Å"fall in love† in such a short time span. Usually those are the relationships that don’t last long or work out. â€Å"When you’re in love, you feel strong, full of life, and happy.You feel Secure and beautiful†, S. E Jones, Yahoo contributor beautifully puts her version of love. With love you donâ€℠¢t feel as if you have to worry about your mental state of mind; you feel great, like as if nothing can bring you down or get in your way. You might feel as if anything that comes your way you can handle. With love comes trust, you trust them quite literally with your heart. Some people may even trust their partner with their life, they would give their own life to save the other if it came down to it. Lastly I believe love is taking each other mperfections; every single one of them and saying wholeheartedly that you accept them. No matter how horrible they may be you can say that you still accept them, love them, and want to spend the rest of your life with them. You should not have really try when you’re in love. Love is mature, it is effortless. Infatuation I feel is fairly, easily confused with love because when you think of love you think of this intense, strong feeling. Infatuation is a strong, deep feeling as well but there is a big difference between the two.The reaso n infatuation can feel so intense and strong feeling is because with infatuation it all comes at once, sort of like a bomb. However, unlike love the â€Å"bomb† goes off after a short time and does not last as long as love does. Infatuation does not grow over time because when you’re infatuated you need instant gratification. Also, when you are infatuated you are constantly wondering. Wondering if your partner is doing something behind you back to hurt you, if they like you as much as you like them, and simply what they think of you.To sum it up with infatuation come constant worrying and anxiety. Unlike love you do not feel secure or safe. â€Å"Infatuation lacks confidence†, Ann Landers simply puts it. In an infatuated relationship you fell as if disaster is around the corner. You feel like your partner is going to disappoint you or even that you are going to lose your partner at any point. In which most cases things are fine and you are just overthinking but that’s what comes along with infatuation, being in that obsessive state of mind.With infatuation there is no trust, just hope. Again using S. E Jones creative words â€Å"Infatuation is getting through today and hoping tomorrow will be good too†. Infatuation is a very interesting experience, fun to some. It is bound to happen at some point. Infatuation is the â€Å"evil twin† it’s nice looking on the exterior but it ends up being a little less than horrible when looked at a little closer. Now as you can see there are big differences between love and infatuation. On the other hand see how easy it may be to mix up the two.It’s sort of like infatuation is the kid in you while love is the adult. It’s important to know sometimes it is inevitable to be infatuated with a person but once love comes around you’ll see just what you were missing out on. Love lasts and is sometimes quite literally your best friend; a lot of people in love view th eir partners as their best friend which is an amazing thing in itself. Unfortunately Infatuation can be compared to that friend you were best friends all throughout middle school but lost touch with when you entered high school.Some things just aren’t meant to last but that’s mostly because better things like love are waiting to happen. References * Jones, S. E. â€Å"The top ten differences between love and infatuation. †Ã‚  Yahoo Voices. Yahoo, 15 Sep 2009. Web. 1 Apr 2013. . * Landers, Ann. â€Å"Love Vs. infatuation: Telling the difference. â€Å"Chicago Tribune A&E. Chicago Tribune, 01 Dec 1990. Web. 1 Apr 2013. .

1984 by George Orwell. Term Paper

1984 by George Orwell. Term Paper 1984 by George Orwell. Term Paper 1984 was written by famous novelist George Orwell and published in 1949. This particular piece of literature takes place in the country of Oceania which is a totalitarian society under the â€Å"watch† of Big Brother. The citizens of Oceania are watched at every single time of the day and Winston (the main character) is against the oppression and manipulation. He wishes to rebel by joining the Brotherhood and overthrow the government and in this journey, he meets a beautiful woman by the name of Julia, who hates The Party just as much as he does and soon, they begin a secret sexual affair (which considered delicate crime). Julia and Winston meet a man named O’Brien whom they believe is part of the Brotherhood but is really part of the inner party. O’Brien â€Å"introduces† Winston into the Brotherhood which is really a trap that was planned for years. He and Julia are sent to the dreaded Ministry of Love. Winston and Julia are tortured and what they once b elieved in is suddenly tested, the individuality they once had is taken away. He is able to depict a society where one obtains no autonomy and incorporated the theme that a healthy and functional government consists of physical and psychological independence. Orwell is known for writing novels about social justice and opposition against totalitarianism. Another one of his popular pieces was Animal Farm which personified a barn of animals based on Stalin’s betrayal of the Russian Revolution. There is a definite pattern in his books. His form of literature came from his past experiences. He was the son of a British colonial civil servant. Growing up he participated in the Indian Imperial Police, in both the anarchist party in the 1920’s and socialist party in the 1930’s. By 1936 Orwell had traveled to Spain to fight for the Republicans against France’s Nationalists. He fled fearing for his life when the Soviet Union backed by communists suppressed revolutionary socialists. As a reader you can absolutely find the connection between his writing and his life. He was exposed to several famous social issues and in publishing books like 1984 and Animal Farm, it was a way for him to apply his background and thoughts abo ut the events into non-fiction stories foreshadowing what he thought about the issue or the future would look like. Orwell’s novel 1984 is narrated by main character Winston Smith. There were many ideas throughout the book but it mainly depicted what a government with too much power can do to a society. Through Winston we clearly saw that â€Å"a government with too much authority is unsafe and will not function properly for the citizens if they do not obtain physical and psychological independence.† The government manipulated and oppressed people’s lives, decisions and even thoughts. In Oceania Big Brother was the head of The Party. The population was constantly reminded â€Å"BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU.† This served as a barrier for Winston along with the other people to not do, think, or say what they believed. There was nowhere, where you were safe and free of the government. In fact, the government was so powerful that they had control of even the past. Winston worked in the Ministry of Truth where he did away with documents of the past or altered them into somet hing The Party wanted it to be, â€Å"[his] job was to rectify the original figures by making them agree with later ones.† â€Å"Lies became the truth†¦ just once in his life he possessed†¦evidence of an act of falsification.† In opposition to the Party, Winston feels as if he obtains the power to expose the truth. Government oppression causes him to continue to do away with the past hence, showing us the frustration he would feel. Having the actual truth ready to be revealed yet completely shut down by just the thought of being supervised all of the time and fear of his life. Everyone in Oceania was completely brain washed and having no physical documentation of the past was definitely not helpful. â€Å"For how can you establish even

Ganhdi essays

Ganhdi essays Gandhi is the true story of one mans devotion to his religion, he also helped to open a whole new aspect of the very different ways of the Hindu religion. The movie portrayed Gandhi as a man of courageous actions and strong will to pave the path for his people. Gandhi was ready and willing to do anything and everything for his country even sacrificing his own life. He stood up for the people by addressing the British government of the unfair justice that the people were living. This film had a huge affect on me. Before seeing it, I had a very limited understanding of who Gandhi was. I was simply in awe that someone like Gandhi accomplished what he accomplished in the amount of time he did. The film showed how to deal with a violent situation with non-violence. Im now a firm believer in that the best ways to achieve liberty, equality, and justice is through non-violent means. What moved me the most was this quote Gandhi said You must be the change you hope to see in this world. To me this means that change starts with you. This film has a lot to do with human rights of the Indians and others like them against the British Empire. The scene where the crowd of about 1,000+ Indians are fired on by the British soldiers is one of the most brutal things I have ever watched. This deeply affected me because first of all it was hard to watch but second of all I learned that the Indians did not fight back because they were dealing with this situation in a non-violent way. The most important connection this film had to human rights was the way that part of human rights violations comes from the capacity of the people being oppressed. This film also showed the compassion Gandhi had even for those who arrested his and beat him. We could learn a lot form Gandhi in our everyday lives, weather it comes to work, school or relationships with others. This movie raises the question in my mind could this really work? It s...

Anthropology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 4

Anthropology - Essay Example In relation to globalization, the article claims that English is every person’s second language in the world. According to the article, the sea played a part in making English a global language by enhancing the interaction of different cultures. In the article, the author expounds on how one restoration of speech from the dead could result to hearing a language to oneself. This assertion correlates with what we learned in chapter 3 about â€Å"articulatory phonetics†. Articulatory phonetics involves studying the production of speech sounds through vocal organs (40). In connection with this, the article explains how alteration of vocal organs through cruel death affected speech. In chapter 3 we also learned that successions of phones make a stretch of speech. It is in relation to this fact that the author of the article claimed that restoration of the dead people’s speech could assist in determining the language they used in communication. The author of the article clearly states his research topic, How English Became ‘Globish’ in writing the article. Apart from using simple language, the author provides detailed information on the origin and expansion of English in order to enable the reader to understand easily the article. Despite this, the article had some few weaknesses. For example, the use of articulatory phonetics in recognizing speech was not presented clearly in the article. Additionally, the article did not provide enough reasons as to why English is a global language. The information provided by the article will be very useful to a person researching on the origin of English language. It has presented the information about the origin of English language in a chronological manner. Although I knew that English is a global language, it is evident that article informed about its origin. The linking of globalization of English language with invasions makes one understand the importance of cultural integration as much as

Architecture in the Baroque period Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Architecture in the Baroque period - Essay Example Since the origins of the Baroque period can be readily traced to the religious developments during the period, it is also possible to differentiate and isolate that various characteristics of the structures during this period from others. Baroque artists did not make use of lines so that the volumes of the structures they built appear massive and weighty; instead they designed the structures such that the spaces between objects in them seemed vast and infinite. They also placed their figures and forms in a diagonal form rather than in rows so that the viewer could become more involved in the art. In line with the same ideas, figures in composition were made such that there were no clear boundaries between them. Such and other similar practices were employed in order to emphasize emotion and heighten the mood. It was done so with a purpose of arousing religious emotion. All these effects were created in the two most popular structures during the period, namely the church and the palac e. During the Baroque period, artists began to use their own symbolism rather than conforming to the previously established rules of the Renaissance era. Thus, the Church symbolism that had been created by the previous era began to vanish and as a consequence the influence of the Church on artistic content and form decreased. In fact, the events that heavily influenced all the works of art during this period were those of the Reformation and the Counter Reformation. One of the guiding principles was to reduce the influence of the Church.